Tackling Possessive Apostrophes

By many an English speaker, the application of the apostrophe (‘) is often abused and misused. In the case of the possessive apostrophe (the type of apostrophe which shows ownership or belonging), it seems impossible to decipher where and when “s” should or shouldn’t be added. But fear not! You can avoid this grammar catastrophe by following four simple rules:

1. Add an apostrophe + “s” to any singular nouns that do not end in “s”:

• The boy's hat

2. Add apostrophe + “s” to a singular noun, even if it ends in “s” (this use may vary depending on whether or not the noun in question is a proper noun):

• Thomas’s presentation (Thomas’ presentation is also acceptable—however, if the proper noun is plural, one would only use an apostrophe after the noun, i.e. The Smiths’ house)
• The boss's office

3. Add apostrophe + “s” to any plural nouns that do not end in “s”:

• The children's toys

4. Just add an apostrophe to any plural noun that ends in “s”:

• The co-workers' lunch break

Hopefully this has shed some light on the use of possessive apostrophes. I will now leave you with a funny cartoon:

Avoid Cannibalism: Use a Comma

(For Jennifer)

Recently I joined a very popular Facebook group created to save society from cannibalism: "'Let's eat Grandma!' or, 'Let's eat, Grandma!' Punctuation saves lives." With its 667,470 fans, this Facebook group demonstrates the importance of the comma to not only save your readers from confusion and yourself from embarassment, but the comma saves society from cannibalism.

When using introductory words or phrases, you want to use a comma to separate them from the rest of the sentence:

• When we are cooking children cannot come in the kitchen.


• When we are cooking, children cannot come in the kitchen.

The first sentence might lead your reader to suspect you of cooking children; however, using a comma after your introductory phrase avoids confusion and clarifies your meaning.

Also, we must use a comma when addressing someone by name: this is referred to as the direct address comma. When addressing someone directly, you need a comma before the name if it's at the end of the sentence:

• Let's eat Grandma!


• Let's eat, Grandma!

The sentence without the comma tells the reader you want to eat Grandma, instead of telling Grandma that it's time to eat. Again, without the comma, the sentence may lead the reader to accuse you of cannibalism!

The direct address comma is necessary when the name is at the beginning of the sentence as well. Place the comma after the name to clarify your meaning. For example:

• George Harrison has been sort of my hero.


• George, Harrison has been sort of my hero.

If addressing George and telling him that Harrison is my hero, I must use the comma after George's name; otherwise, I am saying that George Harrison is my hero.

Also be sure to use two commas to off-set the name if it's in the middle of the sentence:

• Let's eat Grandma and not wait for the rest of the family.


• Let's eat, Grandma, and not wait for the rest of the family.

Without placing commas around "Grandma," the meaning of sentence changes drastically.

Yes, commas are overused and misused in the English language: as Oscar Wilde said, "I have spent most of the day putting in a comma and the rest of the day taking it out." However, we must remember that correctly utilizing the comma saves lives and keeps us from "cooking children" and "eating Grandma."

You Complete Me: the Subject and the Predicate

Many of you may remember the classic scene in the 1996 blockbuster Jerry Maguire where Jerry wins back Dorothy by professing his love for her and saying, "You complete me." I'd like us to think about complete sentences in terms of that quotable line. Complete sentences may not seem nearly as romantic or compelling; however, in every complete sentence there is a relationship between the subject and the predicate, very much like Jerry and Dorothy's relationship.

Complete sentences are made of two parts: the subject and the predicate.

The subject is the noun (person, place or thing) or pronoun that the sentence says something about. The subject is the person or thing that acts or is described in the sentence.

• Jerry promised to show his client the money.

The sentence is about Jerry, so Jerry is the subject. Jerry is the one acting in the sentence.

The predicate is the verb - the action or description. The predicate in a sentence is what the noun does or what that noun is. It tells us something about the subject.

• Jerry promised his client the money.

What did Jerry do? In this sentence, "promised" is the predicate: it is what Jerry did.

When defining these parts of a sentence, ask yourself, "Who does what?" The "who" is usually your subject and the "what" is your predicate. Try it on these examples:

• Annabelle and her colleagues attended the training. (Annabelle and her colleagues = the subject; attended = the predicate)


• The HR department administers policies and handles payroll. (HR department = the subjec; administers and handles = the predicate)

Remember complete sentences need both a subject and a predicate. Imagine the subject as Jerry Maguire, saying to the predicate, "I love you. You...you complete me."

Want to test your knowledge? Here's a great game about subjects and predicates: http://www.quia.com/rr/36764.html

Confusing Than and Then

National Grammar Day was last week (March 4, 2010) and I read several posts on various grammar websites about the top grammar mistakes. Over the past several months we have covered most of the topics that made these top 10 lists commemorating National Grammar Day. However, one common grammar mistake that made several of these lists that we haven’t discussed is the confusion between than and then. Similarity in pronunciation and spelling often causes confusion when trying to distinguish between then and than. Let’s take a minute to clear up any confusion.

Than = Compare/Contrast

The word than is used when comparing (or contrasting) two things. It indicates a comparison or difference. For example:

• At a young age, he showed a higher intelligence than most children.
• My mother’s apple pie is better than mine.
• Emily dressed differently than her sisters.

We use than in connection with the word “rather:” such as,

• I would rather work from home than in the office.

Than is also used in connection with “other.” For instance:

• Hudson wanted to live anywhere other than where he grew up.

Then = When/Time

While than has to do with comparisons, the most common use for then has to do with a sequence of events in time. It’s used to mean “at that time:”

• His mother told him that once he cleaned his room she’d take him to lunch then.

Then can also mean “immediately following:”

• First I will check my email; then I will return phone calls.

Other than referring to time, then also stands in for “in that case” or “as a consequence of.” For example:

• If you want the memo written well, then write it yourself.
• If you work hard, then you will receive a raise.

The tricks to keeping these two confusing words straight are 1) remember that than signifies a comparison, and 2) when you think about then remember the word "when" (because it deals with time).

Due to vs. Because of

The use of due to and because of is a common source of confusion (or perhaps you’re like me and hadn’t given it much thought before).

Did you have trouble getting to work due to the weather or because of the weather?

Here’s the scoop:

• Due to modifies nouns
• Because of modifies verbs

So what’s the correct answer? You had trouble getting to work because of the weather. Getting is the word being modified, and getting is a verb.

*Hint: After the verb to be (and forms of it including is, was, were, are), because of is usually the correct choice.

Other examples:

• Anna was late for her appointment because of a flight delay. (Modified: late.)
• Anna’s tardiness was due to a flight delay. (Modified: delay. Also, notice the verb “was.”)
  
  
• The roads were slick because of the snow. (Modified: were.)
• The slickness of the roads was due to the snow. (Modified: snow. Also, notice the verb “was.”)

Making Sure Pronouns Agree in Number

This week’s grammar tip is to make sure that your pronouns agree in number.

First, let’s review what a pronoun is. A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun (a person, place or thing). For example, “he” would be a pronoun for Catherine’s brother “John.”

Since a pronoun should be able to stand for the noun that precedes it, the pronoun and the noun should agree in number. If the noun is plural, the pronoun should be plural. If the noun is singular, the pronoun should be singular.

In casual speech, pronoun usage when it comes to number agreement is often incorrect. For example:

If anyone wants to claim this ticket, they have to visit my desk now.

A grammatically correct way to word this sentence (even though it may sound a little awkward) would be:

If anyone wants to claim this ticket, he or she has to visit my desk now.

“Anyone” refers to ONE person, not several; therefore the pronoun must also refer to ONE person.

Nouns that you should be careful pairing with pronouns include anyone, nobody and everyone, because they are singular. It might feel natural to pair these words with plural pronouns like their or they, but this is incorrect!

More examples:

Incorrect: My neighbor always leaves their cat outside on my lawn.
Correct: My neighbor always leaves her cat outside on my lawn. (Let's assume that I know my neighbor is a she.)

Incorrect: If a student takes the exam on Friday, they’ll have to wait until Wednesday to receive the grade.
Correct: If a student takes the exam on Friday, he or she will have to wait until Wednesday to receive the grade.

However Joined

In our November 3rd Tips & Tricks post, we discussed “Run-on Sentences.” One of the ways discussed to properly join two sentences was “Inserting a comma and then a conjunction (and, but, or, yet, for, nor or so).” One of the grammatical mistakes I’ve seen lately has been the use of however as a conjunction.

To join two sentences together you need to use a conjunction (and, but, or, yet, for, nor or so); however, it is a common error to use the word however. However is not a conjunction: it is an adverb. Here are several quick tips to help you tidy up your use of however.

One way is to use a conjunction instead of however:

• Incorrect: The weather outside is frightful, however the fire is so delightful.
• Correct: The weather outside is frightful, but the fire is so delightful.

The conjunctions but and yet work well in places you would likely use however to join two sentences.

If you are set on using the word however in the middle of the sentence, another tip is to use a semi-colon and a comma. The semi-colon does the work of a conjunction, joining two independent clauses. Place a semi-colon before however and a comma after it:

• Correct: The weather outside is frightful; however, the fire is so delightful.

The third tip is to put however at the beginning of the sentence (don’t forget to put that comma after it):

• Correct: The weather outside is frightful. However, the fire is so delightful.

Don’t fall victim to misusing however. However is an adverb and by itself cannot be used as a conjunction. The quick fixes are to either replace however with a conjunction (but or yet work best); use a semi-colon before however and a comma after; or place however at the beginning of a sentence.

Lose vs. Loose

Lose and loose are two words that are often misused in place of one another. Perhaps the source of confusion is that lose is a verb and loose, while sometimes an adjective, can also be a verb.

Let’s examine the differences between them.

Lose is a verb. A few common definitions are:

• to come to be without (something in one's possession or care), through accident, theft, etc., so that there is little or no prospect of recovery.
• to suffer the deprivation of.
• to fail to win (a prize, stake, etc.).

Examples of the correct usage of lose:

• Allie didn’t want to lose her place in line.
• Carmen lost her mother in a car accident in 1997.
• Sharon knew that her basketball team was going to lose the tournament on Saturday.

Loose can be an adjective or a verb.

Some common definitions of the adjective loose are:

• free or released from fastening or attachment.
• free from anything that binds or restrains.
• not put up in a package or other container.
• not firm, taut, or rigid.

Examples of the correct usage of the adjective loose are:

• The eggs in the “local farms” area of the supermarket are loose; I pick which ones I want and later place them in a carton.
• The bolt on the wheel was loose; I was afraid the wheel would come off the bike.

Some common definitions of the verb loose are:

• to let loose; free from bonds or restraint.
• to release, as from constraint, obligation, or penalty.
• to unfasten, undo, or untie, as a bond, fetter, or knot.
• to make less tight; slacken or relax.

Examples of the correct usage of the verb loose are:

• On Saturday, Jenn let the parrot loose from the aviary.
• My dad loosened the bolt on my bicycle wheel to fix it.

Quick quiz (answers are below — don’t look ahead!):

1. After ____________ (-ing form) a good amount of weight, John found that his pants were ____________.
2. The doves were set ___________ on a sunny day.
3. You’re going to ___________ in this situation unless you tell him the truth.
4. I don’t want to ____________ you as a colleague.
5. He left the screw too ____________, so the frame fell off the wall.

Answers:

1. losing, loose
2. loose
3. lose
4. lose
5. loose

Thanks to www.dictionary.com for the above definitions.

The Adjective and the Countable/Uncountable Noun

This weekend, my niece and I played Mad Libs and she asked me to name an adjective. I paused to recall the difference between adjectives and adverbs, so as not to make a fool of myself in front of a 9 year old. I quickly remembered that adjectives are words that describe or modify a person, place or thing in the sentence. Most of us have a handle on this basic rule; however, there are a few tricky adjectives that I’d like us to look at.

First, we need to understand the difference between a countable noun and an uncountable noun. Countable nouns are ones that take on a plural form such as “dog - dogs,” “friend - friends,” “cookie - cookies,” “person - people.” Uncountable nouns usually don’t change in their plural form: “water,” “food,” “deer,” “money,” “air.” We don’t say, “I sold the deers for many moneys” because these nouns don’t change in their plural forms.

For the majority of adjectives, it doesn’t matter whether the noun is countable or uncountable. We say “the dirty dogs” and “the dirty water.” But I mention these two types of nouns, because using a countable or an uncountable noun matters with a few tricky adjectives.

Much or Many
We only use much to describe uncountable nouns:

• A pregnant lady drinks so much water.
• We don’t have much money saved.

We use many to describe only countable nouns:

• Many dogs don’t wear collars.
• The little girl ate many cookies.

A lot of or Lots of
Think of these two adjectives as casual substitutes for what we just went over with much and many. Use them with uncountable nouns when we are using them to mean much and with countable nouns when they mean many. Let’s look at some examples:

• A pregnant lady drinks lots of (much) water.
• We don’t have a lot of (much) money saved.
• Lots of (many) dogs don’t wear collars.
• The little girl ate a lot of (many) cookies.

Little or Few
Just like with much, little describes only uncountable nouns:

• There was little food leftover after Sunday’s dinner.
• It was so hot outside that it felt as though there was little air to breathe.

Likewise, the adjective few modifies only the countable nouns:

• The girl only has a few friends.
• A few people are going to the show tonight.

A little bit of
This adjective phrase is informal and always precedes an uncountable noun.

• There is a little bit of food in the dog’s bowl.
• I’m hoping for a little bit of snow before Christmas.

The tip and trick is: when using any of the adjective or adjective phrases listed above, check whether or not the noun is countable or uncountable and use the appropriate adjective. Have fun modifying!

Top 3 Reasons Why Grammar Matters

Many times over the years, I have been called a “grammar Nazi” for my devout adherence to and championship of grammar rules. Usually these comments just roll off my shoulders. However, a recent comment left on a previous blog started me thinking about why good grammar is so important. I believe that appropriate grammar should not only be important to me, but to everyone — especially in the workplace. Let’s take a look at my top 3 reasons why grammar matters (or should matter) in the workplace:

1. Getting a job. Good grammar and correct spelling are important in getting a job. In a survey of hiring managers, 75% said it was worse for an applicant to have a spelling or grammar error on her application than to show up late or even swear during an interview! In another survey conducted by the Recruitment & Employment Confederation, nearly half of all recruitment professionals said that over 50% of the resumes they received contained grammatical errors. What do these errors in your resume say about you? Those reviewing your application may think you’re uneducated, you lack communication skills, or you don’t pay attention to details. This is not the message you want your resume or job application to convey: these messages won’t get you that job you want.
   
2. Keeping a job. Even after you have the job you want, grammar mistakes and spelling errors can be costly (and in some cases even cost you your job). For instance, in 2005 poor grammar and atrocious spelling cost U.K. companies a staggering $25 billion in lost sales. Can your company, organization or office afford to lose that kind of money? Another costly grammar mistake led the Cancer Research Center in Hawaii to lose $8 million in funding: a bill to tax cigarettes established a one-cent tax increase for the next 6 years (a total of 6 cents), but the bill was supposed to designate one-cent per cigarette sold. I definitely would not want to be the person responsible for that costly mistake! In a survey by Office Angels, 84% of surveyed employers believed that excellent work is devalued by sloppy spelling and poor grammar.
   
3. Giving and receiving respect. Lastly, grammar isn’t about following rules like a robot: it isn’t about blindly following the orders of us “grammar Nazis.” Correct grammar is about being aware of appropriate context and making your voice, your message, your content understood. Appropriate grammar shows respect for the person you are addressing. Good grammar sends a message that will be respected.

Basically, if you want your excellent work to receive the value it deserves and if you want to receive the respect you deserve in the workplace, then grammar matters!

Used to (and Would) vs. Use to

Last week a co-worker and I were discussing our biggest grammar pet peeves over lunch (yes, some of us nerdy-types do sit around and discuss this from time to time) and her biggest grammar pet peeve is when people write use to when they mean used to. There I sat with my fork in hand and my salad in front of me, wondering how often I was guilty of this grammar infraction. To be honest, I couldn’t remember the rules about when to use used to and when to use use to. I went back to work and did a little research and decided to share this with you as this week’s Tips and Tricks topic: when to use “used to (or would) vs. when to use “use to” (without the ‘d’).

Used to (or would)
1. When we say something used to happen, we are talking about repeated events and actions in the past, which usually are things that are now finished and no longer happening. (For this use of used to you can also use would.)

• When Suzy was a child, she used to collect Barbie dolls. (When Suzy was a child, she would collect Barbie dolls.)
• During the Great Depression, my grandfather used to sell scrap metal. (During the Great Depression, my grandfather would sell scrap metal.)
• I used to go out a lot before having children. (I would go out a lot before having children.)

From the examples, we can assume that Suzy no longer collects Barbie dolls, my grandfather no longer sells scrap metal and I no longer go out a lot.

2. We also use used to when talking about repeated habits in the past (Here we cannot use would).

• My cat used to hiss at squirrels.
• My husband used to smoke.
• I used to be a tribal administrative assistant.

These sentences imply that my cat no longer hisses at squirrels, my husband no longer smokes and I am no longer a tribal administrative assistant.

Use to (without the ‘d’)
The only time that we should use use to (without the ‘d’) is when it follows “did” or “didn’t” in a sentence. (Here we also cannot use would without changing the meaning).

• Did you use to work in the same office as Sally?
• Didn’t we use to go out?
• What sort of games did your children use to like?
• Sally and I did use to work together.
• Due to the snowy winters, we didn’t use to go out much.

To spare my co-worker from the annoyance of her pet peeve, please remember this general tip: when “did” or “didn’t” is in the sentence, use use to (without the ‘d’), but when there is no “did” or “didn’t” in the sentence, use used to.

Run-On Sentences

Often it's thought that a run-on sentence is a very long sentence that cannot be spoken in one breath. Not true! A run-on sentence has two or more independent clauses (groups of words that communicate complete thoughts — an independent clause could stand alone as its own sentence) placed together without the correct punctuation. By this definition, a run-on sentence can be very short.

People use run-on sentences when speaking, but by using changes in vocal tone or in tempo (pauses, speaking slower, etc.) the meaning is easily understood. In writing, correct punctuation must be used so that the reader does not become confused.

Run-on sentences can be corrected by:

• Inserting a semicolon between the independent clauses
• Making the clauses two separate sentences
• Inserting a comma and then a conjunction (and, but, or, yet, for, nor or so)

Now, let’s look at some examples and how we might correct them.

(Short) Run-on: That little girl didn’t seem happy she was crying.
Correct Option: That little girl didn’t seem happy; she was crying.

Run-on: Karen was upset with Jenna about what she said however, she appreciated her honesty about the matter.
Correct Option: Karen was upset with Jenna about what she said; however, she appreciated her honesty about the matter.

Run-on: Jessie’s dog was sick this morning, Jessie had a bad day at work.
Correct Option: Jessie’s dog was sick this morning, so Jessie had a bad day at work.

Run-on: I found my keys in my roommate’s purse, she mistook them for hers.
Correct Option: I found my keys in my roommate’s purse. She mistook them for hers.

*It’s important to note that even though a lengthy sentence might not be a run-on sentence, multiple sentences might be easier to understand.

Necessary Words Only

Business writing (from e-mails and memos to articles and reports) needs to be about clarity over length. Keeping your sentences short, using easily understandable words and minding the length of your writing ensures a clearer message for your reader.

Tip 1: Use short sentences.
Research shows that understanding drops when sentences are too long. A suggested average sentence length is less than 20 words. Break longer sentences down into two or more sentences, if possible. Try to stick with simple sentence construction by using the S-V-O (subject-verb-object) model for your sentences, where the subject of the sentence is first, the verb second and the object last.

Tip 2: Use simple words.
Simple words ensure that your meaning comes across loud and clear. Your audience may not have the same vocabulary that you have. Here are some examples:

• Use “prove” instead of “substantiate.”
• Use “use” instead of “utilize” or “operate.”
• Use “now” instead of “currently.”
• Use “broken” instead of “nonfunctional.”
• Use “this means” instead of “tantamount”

Apply this tip to phrases as well. Instead of saying “on a regular basis,” just say “regularly.” Instead of saying “advance planning,” stick with “planning” (all planning is technically in advance after all). You don’t want to overload your reader with unnecessary adjectives and adverbs.

Tip 3: Pay attention to overall length.
Avoid general wordiness — cut out any words, phrases, sentences or paragraphs that aren’t central to what you want your reader to understand. A general rule is to proof read your writing and cut it by 10%.

In today’s business writing, wordiness and length tend to obscure the meaning of the writing, leaving the reader confused. We tend to value length over clarity — a habit that needs to be broken so our readers will understand what we are saying.

Writer for the Harvard Business Publishing blog, David Silverman poses the following challenge to reduce a complex phrase to something simple. Can you cut this to just a word or two?

It is the opinion of the group assembled for the purpose of determining a probability of the likelihood of the meteorological-related results and outcome for the period encompassing the next working day that the odds of precipitation in the near-term are positive and reasonably expected. [Silverman, David. “Why Is Business Writing So Bad?”]

That vs. Who

Many years ago, a teacher corrected an essay of mine. Since I can’t remember the exact topic of the essay, let’s say I was recounting a dream that I’d had:

“Then, I ran into the woman that had given me the exam.”

Whoops. My teacher crossed out “that” and replaced it with, “who.” In the margin, she wrote, “That refers to objects. Who refers to people.”

Since then, I’ve found myself catching others’ misuse of these two words.

While it’s come to my attention that the English language is actually very forgiving of instances when individuals (whether in writing or in speech) interchange that and who, conventional grammar rules do offer a clear (and easy to remember) distinction.

That refers to objects.

• I liked the shirt that fit me somewhat loosely.
• I applied to a school that was known for its Visual Art program.
• I trained the dog that knows how to “speak.”

Who refers to people.

• She became best friends with the girl who played with her first.
• I’m the one who taught the dog how to “speak.”
• He’s the guy who found my keys at the gym.

See also: That vs. Which.

The Here and Now of Lay and Lie

Driving to work this morning, I caught myself singing along to Bob Dylan’s song “Lay, Lady, Lay” as it played on the radio. As I belted out the familiar lyrics, I was struck by yet another casualty of the ever confusing “lay vs. lie.” To avoid this mistake ourselves, let’s take a quick look at these two tricky verbs.

*Note: For this post, we’re not talking about “to lie” to mean “to tell an untruth”, but the “to recline or to set” meaning.

The key is to remember that in the present tense, lay requires a direct object and lie does not. For instance:

• You lay the folder on his desk. (The folder is the direct object)
• You lie in the afternoon’s hot sun. (No direct object)

When talking about doing something now, you lie in the sun, and you lay down the folder.

Here are two tricks to help you to remember when to use lay and when to use lie:

1. The famous Bob Dylan song that I heard in the car this morning, “Lay, Lady, Lay” is grammatically incorrect! “Lay, lady, lay, lay across my big brass bed,” implies that someone else is placing Dylan’s lady on his big brass bed, which isn’t his intended meaning. Dylan is imploring his lady to stay with him, and grammatically speaking, Dylan should have said, “Lie, lady, lie, lie across my big brass bed.” (The same grammatical error occurs in Eric Clapton’s song “Lay Down Sally.”)
2. County music artist Chris Young’s song “Lay It on Me” uses lay correctly! When Young sings about his lady’s kiss that he wants her to “come on and lay it on me,” the kiss is the direct object that he wants placed upon him.

So in the present tense, in the here and now, Bob Dylan’s “Lay, Lady, Lay” is wrong because you lie across his big brass bed, and Chris Young’s “Lay It on Me” is right because whatever “it” is, it’s a direct object.

Remember, this is just the present tense use of these tricky verbs. I’ll tackle the even more confusing past and past participle tenses of lay and lie in next week’s exciting installment of Tips & Tricks.

More Confusing Homonyms: Its vs. It's

Let’s continue last week’s post on homonyms. “Its” and “it’s” are two more confusing homonyms that people, even native speakers of English, commonly misuse for one another. The source of confusion is that English speakers are used to adding 's after a noun to suggest possession of something; however, this isn’t the case with “it’s.”

To put it simply:

• “Its” is the possessive form of “it.” It expresses that “it” possesses, or has or owns something.
• “It’s” is the contraction form of “it is” or “it has.”

A quick check: If you can substitute the word “it is” or “it has,” the word that you should use is “it’s.”

Examples:

Its

• Its capital city was very hectic.
• I found its taste to be a bit too rich.
• I saw that movie on the night of its premiere.
• The dog spent all evening licking its paw.

It’s

• In my opinion, it’s too hot outside to run.
• It’s been a very eventful week.
• The sky looks like it’s going to rain on us!
• Do you think it’s time for us to leave?

Shedding a Little Light on Affect and Effect

Effect and affect are two of the most confusing homonyms (words that sound similar but have very different meanings), repeatedly misused for one another. The misuse of these two words isn’t necessarily because they simply sound similar, but more likely because the rules of when to use affect with an ‘a’ and when to use effect with an ‘e’ are so confusing! My job today is to try to simplify this as much as possible…

More often than not, we should follow the very simple guideline that effect with an ‘e’ is a noun and affect with an ‘a’ is a verb. If you use affect and effect in this way, you’ll be right 95% of the time!

Effect
As a noun, effect with an ‘e’ has many meanings; however, at the heart of all of these definitions seems to be the same underlying meaning. When used as a noun, effect means “a result.” If you are talking about a result, you need to use effect. For instance:

1. The humidity today had no effect on Susan’s hair. (The humidity produced no result on Susan’s hair.)
2. The negative effects of her attitude were noticed by our supervisor. (The negative results of her attitude were noticed by our supervisor.)

Affect
Affect with an ‘a’ is a verb with multiple meanings as well. One usage means “to influence,” as in:

1. The humidity today affected my hair. (The humidity today influenced my hair.)
2. Her negative attitude affects the entire office morale. (Her negative attitude influences the entire office morale.)

A second meaning for affect with an ‘a’ is that as a verb it can be used to mean “to act in a way that you don’t feel.” For example:

1. In order to help the children remain calm, I affect a degree of serenity despite my own fears.


2. The politician affected an air of self-confidence that most found unsettling.

As I said, most of the time affect with an ‘a’ is the verb and effect with an ‘e’ is a noun. There are rare instances when these roles are reversed, but those exceptions will have to be another Tips and Tricks entry. For now, remember this basic rule and you’ll be right 95% of the time!

That vs. Which

Many people mistakenly use the words that and which interchangeably; however, they do not serve the same purpose and are not interchangeable. While some grammar experts complicate and obscure the rules dictating the usage of that and which, I strive to keep them as simple as possible! The simplest way to properly use them is to remember:

• That precedes an essential (or restrictive) clause
• Which comes before everything else.

That and the Essential Clause
To understand when to use that you must understand what makes a clause essential. An essential clause (also known as a restrictive or defining clause) provides a necessary part of the sentence by restricting or modifying another part of that sentence. Basically, you can’t get rid of the clause without losing part of the meaning and these clauses use that to introduce them. For example:

• Dogs that constantly whine annoy those around them.
  
  “That constantly whine” defines the type of dogs you are talking about. Without the clause you would be saying that all dogs annoy those around them, changing the meaning of the sentence. That comes with a clause that cannot be thrown out.

(Note: With essential clauses and therefore with that there are no commas used to separate the clause from the rest of the sentence.)

Which and the Non-Essential Clause
Which introduces the non-essential, additional information to the sentence. The non-essential clause (also known as the non-defining or non-restrictive clause) provides information in the sentence that can be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence. Which clauses can be thrown out and the sentence meaning remains the same. For example:

• Dogs, which sometimes bark out of excitement or fear, make good pets.
  
  “Which sometimes bark out of excitement or fear” can be removed from the sentence and the integrity or meaning of the sentence does not change - “Dogs make good pets.”

(Note: commas are always used to separate the non-essential information from the rest of the sentence.)

Wrap It Up
That provides vital information that cannot be removed from the sentence without changing the meaning, and commas are not needed. Which introduces additional, non-essential information to a sentence, and commas are always necessary.

Bonus Tip
Remember: Do not use which or that to refer to a person. Use who (or whom or whose). See Tips and Tricks entry on Who vs. Whom.

Misplaced and Squinting Modifiers

A modifier modifies whatever it’s closest to in a sentence. A misplaced modifier might modify the incorrect thing.

For example, consider the following sentences:
I nearly met all of my sales goals.
I met nearly all of my sales goals.

As the writer, you have to make sure that what you write will be easily understood by the reader. Do you want the reader to think that you were very close to meeting all of your sales goals, or that you met most but not all of your sales goals?

Other examples:

The sun in Florida was hot. (Confusing — is there more than one sun?)
In Florida, the sun was hot. (Clear)

My husband took the newspapers to the bins that were more than a week old. (Confusing — the bins were recyclable?)
My husband took the newspapers that were more than a week old to the bins. (Clear)

A squinting modifier is a modifier that is placed in such a fashion that it could modify either what comes before it or what follows it. Your reader may not know which thing is being modified and will therefore not understand your sentence.

Examples:

He told his daughter eventually the dog would have to go back to its owner. (Confusing — did he tell her eventually, or would the dog eventually have to go?)
He told his daughter the dog would eventually have to go back to its owner. (Clear)

Janice likes that band only because she thinks the guitarist is talented. (Could be confusing — does Janice like only that band, or does she only like the band because of the guitarist?)

Janice only likes that band because she thinks the guitarist is talented. (Clear)

For more information on modifiers, please check our post on Dangling Modifiers.

Double Negatives

A double negative is the improper placement of two negative words in the same sentence. Most of the time, the user of a double negative intends to make a negative statement, but two negatives form a positive statement. One negative and one positive form a negative statement.

Examples of negative words include no, not, nobody, hardly, barely and none.

The following sentences are examples of double negatives and what the sentences are actually implying. The negative words in the original sentence are indicated in bold.

• I didn’t see nobody. = I saw somebody.
• I barely ate none of it. = I ate a lot of it.
• She didn’t need no one to help her. = She needed someone to help her.

The original sentences make positive statements because two negatives cancel each other out.

The following sentences are the incorrect sentences above rewritten correctly. The negative words are indicated in bold. The positive words are indicated in italics.

• I didn’t see anybody.
• I barely ate any of it.
• She didn’t need anyone to help her.

The sentences make negative statements because of the placement of one negative and one positive.